12/6/2023 0 Comments Synergy health covid![]() 20Įmerging evidence suggests that the number of patients with COVID‐19 diagnosed with bacterial co‐infections during hospitalization periods is increasingly raised. 19 Secondary and bacterial co‐infections with pandemics and viral epidemics have irreversible consequences, especially in high‐risk groups, including those with immunodeficiency or immunosuppression. 5 Although multiple microbial agents can cause acute lower respiratory tract infections, in most cases, the disease is caused by viruses and bacteria at the same time. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 The mechanisms of severe complications caused by influenza‐bacterial co‐infections mainly include a lack of effective immune response as well as pathogenic synergy. 11 Some influenza‐related bacterial species include Streptococcus pyogenes, Neisseria meningitidis, Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. 8, 9, 10 For instance, influenza‐related bacterial infections contribute to severe illness and mortality during the epidemic and seasonal influenza outbreaks. 6, 7 It has previously documented that the mortality rate of viral infections can be influenced by different factors, such as bacterial co‐infection. ![]() 4, 5 According to the laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological studies, secondary or bacterial co‐infections with other viruses can significantly increase the mortality rate in patients infected with viral infections. 3 Co‐infections and superinfections are common in respiratory viral infections. 2 The ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic highlights the critical need for rapid development of vaccines and antiviral treatments to reduce the number of hospitalizations and deaths caused by this new dangerous coronavirus. 1 By July 5, 2020, more than 11,125,245 million cases have been diagnosed in 216 countries, and more than 528,204 deaths have been reported. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is an infectious disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) that was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and is currently circulating throughout the world. influenzae PERK PKR‐like endoplasmic reticulum kinase PKR protein kinase R REG3B Regenerating Islet Derived Protein 3 Beta RIG‐I retinoic acid‐inducible gene 1 SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS‐CoV‐2 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 STAT1 signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 TANK TRAF Family Member Associated NFKB Activator TB tuberculosis TGF‐β transforming growth factor‐beta TLR‐3 Toll‐like receptor 3 TRAF3 TNF Receptor Associated Factor 3 T4P Type 4 pilus WGMs whole‐genome metagenomics In this review, we will summarize the bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infection in some featured respiratory viral infections, especially COVID‐19.Ībbreviations AMPs antimicrobial peptides CCL2 C‐C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 COVID‐19 coronavirus disease 2019 HCoV human coronavirus HCoV‐NL63 Human coronavirus NL63 ICAM‐1 intercellular adhesion molecule 1 IFNs interferons IL interleukin IP‐10 interferon‐γ‐inducible protein‐10 IRF‐3 interferon regulatory factor 3 MAVS mitochondrial antiviral‐signaling MCP‐1 monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 MDA5 RIG‐1/melanoma differentiation‐associated gene 5 MERS Middle East Respiratory Syndrome‐related coronavirus NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NTHI non‐typeable H. Also, the antibiotic‐resistant as a result of overusing must be considered. Therefore, bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infection are considered critical risk factors for the severity and mortality rates of COVID‐19. To date, a considerable number of bacterial strains have been resistant to various antibiotics such as azithromycin, and the overuse could render those or other antibiotics even less effective. It is possible that some patients die from bacterial co‐infection rather than virus itself. Although antibiotics do not directly affect SARS‐CoV‐2, viral respiratory infections often result in bacterial pneumonia. Numerous types of antibiotics such as azithromycin have been employed for the prevention and treatment of bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infections in patients with a viral respiratory infection (e.g., SARS‐CoV‐2). Respiratory viral infections, such as influenza, predispose patients to co‐infections and these lead to increased disease severity and mortality. Efforts made to develop antiviral strategies for the treatment of COVID‐19 are underway. To date, there are no proven effective therapies for this virus. The pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), has affected millions of people worldwide.
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